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It will use technology and they be quick, running a lot of their own standards, and so they start writing these commercial standards. You won't find an ASTM standard. ASTM standards are books like this. This is the book on facility, okay, ships and marine technology, okay. Now I have to have the 1980s, 1998 version in my office. I actually have a shelf like this of ASTM standards. The steel standards are about that thick, okay, there's seven or eight volumes. And actually, ASTM, the first set of ASTM standards a hundred years ago were basically steel standards. Now they got them for insulation, anything you can think of, they have ASTM standards. And the entire shelf, if you had a full set, you'd have to buy a meter or two, fifty or a hundred thousand dollars, and take twenty feet if I go along the wall.

However, if you just Google an ASTM standard and you're an MIT registered user with the libraries, it will pop up. Even after you Google, the computer is, my computer now over the last six months, well, since I'm looking for an ASTM standard, I'll get a pop-up window that says, would you like to download this for free from the MIT computer? Actually from compass, MIT libraries owns them, you know. They had a damn — that's what your tuition goes for, is maintaining the libraries and stuff. And so we have these books of standards. I have some of them because I use them fairly often. I mean here's a standard.

Human engineering design for marine systems, equipment and facilities, okay. I got a standard for human engineering on Navy ships and gentle. There are other standards, such as, I would have gone through but I decided I didn't, hydrogen cracking. But there's a structural welding code for steel, which is, every bridge and building in the United States is built to this code, because virtually every state in the United States has incorporated this into their building codes. You cannot get your building certified because this now has the sent a force of law. It's made by the American Welding Society by a committee, but it was adopted by every state into their building codes. That gives it the force of law. Once the government approves it, all your OSHA standards and things like that usually are calling out standards like this. I actually have a module in this course, codes and standards, whether good or bad for innovation, okay.

Then ASTM book — I just got this one because I get things for free from American Society. They grade their welding engineer exams, but for free. What I get for grading, I get a 1200-dollar book here, free books which cost them next to nothing, okay. So all sixty standards referenced by AWS in the structural welding code are now compiled in here. So this is the second edition, and this is just all the AWS [ASTM] standards for the structural welding code for steel. Just the structural welding code itself takes up about this much space, because it's for steel. There's one for aluminum, there's one for titanium, there's one for stainless steels, there's one for repair welding. They make money, okay. You see thirty years ago you could buy one of these for seventy-five bucks, four hundred. I remember Gaskell's cost twenty-five and that was back in the nineteen late fifties of things.

Now the codes and standards, I can show you some x-ray radiographs that I buy from ASTM with cracking, radiographic, you know, film. And I bought those fifteen years ago for three hundred dollars. Today it's fifteen hundred dollars. Over the last twenty years the professional societies that sell the standards have determined this is a great money-making tool, okay. So about twenty years ago, American Welding Society, they started collecting money for certifying welders. To get there, a welder has to be certified, and got a certification and certification fees. They gave, you can be certified not for the Navy welding but for commercial welding, you can be certified. American Welding started in the mid-nineties. Their total assets, which they published in the Welding Journal a year, back then were about two or three million dollars. They just published it last month, they're worth a hundred million dollars today, twenty years later. You know, they're making this side of the year certifying welders. Actually internet-based certified welding engineer. Now they don't certify welding engineers, it's just your voters that I grade all over the stands. I'm charging them. This gets some standards from them.

But anyway, you can't build anything that standards, you know, it's, you have to go to all the Navy standards. You can't even turn a valve on the ships without looking it up in the book, right? How do you turn the wrong valve, could kill a few people, okay.

So I'm just going to catch up on a few things here. This is something on the stainless steel lectures. I'm just going to like see what I missed when I was going through this. This is molybdenum content. I told you put some molybdenum in stainless steel for all right corrosion resistance. This is the critical pitting temperature, at what temperature can you get rid of pitting problems? And here's 316 stainless steel. 317 is kind of medical grade, the L versions and Elbert ought help, better because it forms fewer carbides. AL-6, okay, this is what the Navy wants to make submarines out of. You can see why, the ocean can get pretty corrosive, and if you made it out of some other stainless you'd end up pitting your submarine. So that's why they have to add that. Most of them, they looked at it, they've given up. Now that was something of ten or fifteen years ago, was that all stainless steel submarine. They've given up on the technology before that. They've been worrying about that for a while.

If you're welding, this is a Schaeffler diagram that I put up yesterday, the Schaeffler diagram. The Schaeffler diagram basically tells you, when you have low chrome, low nickel alloying for example down here, you've just got a carbon steel, your martensite. And then over here, a lot of chrome, you'll be very ferritic, a lot of nickel you'll be austenitic up here, face-centered cubic, body-centered cubic. Here's where your 304 and 309 is a, well, 304's a little more richly alloyed, 304 garden-variety, 310 is very heavily alloyed up here. If you're trying to weld dissimilar materials, I mean I talked about welding the chromoly steel boiler tube to the stainless steel boiler tube for that destroyer back in nineteen seventy-eight, seventy-nine, whatever it was. When you're mixing those metals, you're going to hit something in the weld metal that some combination of the weld metal electrode and base material in solution. And if you're diluted very little, your weld metal is going to have a composition that's mostly weld metal, the electrode composition. If it's a lot, you're going to be down here like the base material. Well obviously you can get martensite if you don't do this properly.

And it turns out, my example of that is, there's thirty years ago I had a student working at Army Research Labs over here in Watertown, and he was working on hydrogen cracking of steels for the Army. Well, armor steels. And he called me up. The State Department, the State Department was all over the US Army because they'd agreed to sell the Egyptians a base, these tanks. They were being built in Lima, Ohio. Anybody from Ohio? This is why I like Lima beans, okay. But Lima, Ohio is where the US Army's tank plants — Chrysler, the neighbor of stamps, and I love — they were building Abrams for the Egyptian army. They were building some older model of the US, but they were having a little problem. And I told you, when the Navy started welding, the [HY-80?] was one of the first ones too. So they basically couldn't solve a hydrogen cracking problem, so they used austenitic stainless steel filler metal. And that's because the austenitic stainless steel will dissolve ten times the hydrogen, and it's ten times more resistant than carbon ferritic steel weld. So they're having some problems welding this, so they decided to weld the Egyptian tanks the Boston extends to welcome [with austenitic stainless steel], okay. Only they didn't worry about how much dilution. And depending on the weld metal they were using, they were getting cracking, okay.

And here's the martensite boundary. If you compare it with this one for, you can see this is martensite, this is austenite, martensite, this is austenite. So somewhere here are some martensite boundaries. And all these guys are doing is showing, if you mix, if you're welding dissimilar metals like armor steel with a stainless steel, if you don't have the right amount of base metal melted to weld metal melted, you'll end up with martensite streaming. My martensite very susceptible, walk, essentially impossible not, hydrogen cracking, even with just the residual hydrogen that's in here, you're screwed, okay.

So he calls me up at six o'clock. The State Department is complaining because we're welding Egyptian tanks and we're shipping them through full of cracks. No, if you're going to ship Egyptian, you're gonna be, my boss said, "Tom, defective ones, right?" "I made over the threats, yes, again, yeah, paint over little, polly fill, yeah, get rid of them, somebody," you know, "damn it, okay." The Egyptians were napping, State Department was embarrassed, another state partnership papers, okay.

So another story on stainless steel. They brought this before and I kind of show you her bourbon anyway. So this is a Farberware pot, okay. This is probably twenty years old. Farberware came to me because of the MIT Industrial Liaison Program. They're members and you can get free consulting from them. They paid back then about an hour of the faculty member, just says yes. So in the 1980s I actually got more than any other faculty member at MIT. You know, just like I told you, I did a lot of failure analysis. I used to have companies three or four hours a week, now three or four companies coming in. What's your problem? They tell me their problem and I shoot them to them just like that, okay.

So what Farberware says, they bought this pot in, and they said, well, we're making these stainless steel pots, it's 304 stainless steel, garden-variety stainless steel. It's got aluminum on the bottom, and that's an interesting story too, but we ship them, some of them to Japan, and when they show up in Japan they got cracks in them. They didn't have cracks when they left. So I went, got, I said, see the difference. They were sort of amazed. Well, if you know anything about 304 stainless steel — well, they were making stainless steel pots, I mean, why didn't they know about this?

It turns out, ferrover, ferritic stainless steel, when you stretch it you can have martensite. That you can get by quenching and changing the temperature, but you can also get martensite from the austenite in 304, which is actually metastable. You have to know that. And when you stretch it and deform it, it will transform by strain-induced martensite. And so when you take a piece of flat disc of stainless steel and punch it into a forming die to make a pot out of, the people like this, you're getting more deformation at the top than you are at the bottom. The very bottom gives no deformation, it starts out as the circle and ends up the circle. This stuff gets bent, the video system bent, this stuff actually gets compressed and stretched. And basically the magnetism is a function of how much deformation is in the stainless. This is partially body-centered tetragonal martensite. This stuff is not susceptible, hydrogen cracking, this stuff is, okay.

So I said, well, so I explained it, this is why it's cracking. It was delayed cracking. How did I know that? Well, when they put it on the boat in New York — manufacturing site's in Brooklyn, okay — and get it to Tokyo, it didn't have cracks, and then it did have cracks, you know, a week and a half or two weeks later. And that's a delay, I figured that out myself, okay. And so it was just cracking on the boat, it's a delayed cracking. Are you well, the only thing causes really crappy in steels that I know of is hydrogen. So then I had to figure out, where they get the mark — I don't want to do that because I know that's strain martensite in 304. But it is, I don't know where you're getting your hydrogen. It's start out with a sheet of 304, where the hydrogen come from? And they said, well, do you think that has anything to do, fact to get good bonding of the polymer coating on the inside, they would take stainless steel powder, and they would plasma spray it on the inside to make a very rough surface that they could then impregnate the plastic inside and then stick really well. And then we're using argon five percent nitrogen as the gas for plasma spray. I said, yeah, that'll do it. So problem solved.

And since then I've had this little pot — but afterwards, but Sir, that's after all the struggles, the heat's gone away, right? And ever since, Grayson, I love it. It's hot things. I want another. The plasma spraying metal powders on the inside with plasma spray. Plasma spraying, they take stainless steel powders, they put them in, they have a plasma torch, arc welding torch, and they inject the powders into the plume of the plasma which is five percent nitrogen, which is now hydrogen — absolute super hot, oh, ten thousand degrees Kelvin, it's pretty hot. No, no, go fast. I can run my feeble [finger?] through a candle. I've done it through a welding arc. Five small plane go. Hey, my mother, but no, if you go quickly it's just hot. When it cools down quickly, two traps the hydrogen.

They make it, put in a box, it might've even cracked before they knew, the guy is less than the dock. But it was inside the box, it was packaged up, the cracking occurs within a week. And in fact these cracks have gotten longer over time, because you've got the residual stress, where the distress snow from residual stresses. And I was best, thank you, you can put susceptible material, original material wasn't even susceptible, okay. But once they formed it, was, okay, then this stress stuff from the forming operation. I got an all-expenses-paid trip to the Farberware plant to look at other problems. Millions, they paid me a couple thousand dollars besides, twenty years ago. My rate is probably 150.

Anyway, so you show up in Brooklyn. This is not the nicest area of Brooklyn, it's sort of industrial. And you can kind of tell, because the cabdriver dropped me off and he's "go away, okay, let's go around." And it was just after Christmas as I remember, and there's snow all over the ground, on the sidewalks, everything. And I go up — I didn't know which side of the building it's at, an address. So the cabdriver dropped me off, I go and I go to the door and it's bolted. I mean it's really well. And there's no real windows in this building either, and it's a city block size, okay. It's a, hackneyed city, what time. So I started trudging through the about three feet of snow on the sidewalks. But you know, snow in New York is very clean. And I go, literally, I didn't know which side to go, I went more than three-quarters way around the building before I found a door that wasn't completely bolted shut, okay. I can tell, this is not necessarily a great neighborhood, okay. Finally I found a door that you didn't, that I'd be able to get in, and I went in, I saw the plant.

I had another example in New York City once. This stuff, everybody, if I know the George Washington Bridge to New York City. So the George Washington Bridge, you come over the bridge and then it goes underneath the highway, the other highway, right? And so one time there was this thirty or forty story building, this is just kind of throwing right now, thirty, forty-story building, it was actually an apartment building. And they said, oh, we got a crack in the beam, one of the structural beams, ten feet tall web, holding up this twenty-story building. And this is the beam that, if you were driving through the tunnel you'd look up and that would be the beam that's holding up the building, and I got a crack. I said, well, beats the crap, nine feet. Oh, we want you to go look at it. So give me an address. I don't know the name of that company or the others. Taxi, an attacks, against speeds off out of this neighborhood. I look down, there's all these little capsules on, son of a, let's start looking around. Everything's bolted up, and I go and I knock, going knock on the —